CHAPTER 8
The Irish in
Portugal
"Let us all gather here and fight
in the service of God and to defend our lands, for it is right that we should
have a good understanding and that we should help one another for that
purpose."
– Red Hugh O'Donnell, address urging the Irish residing in
IRISH MERCHANTS OF
LISBON
The
expanding business opportunities arising from the extensive Portuguese
explorations during the close of the Middle Ages drew Irish merchants to
Lisbon. Throughout the 15th century,
Portuguese explorers sailed far into the Atlantic, discovering the Azores, the
Canary Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.
They also sailed south along the African coast, rounding the Cape of
Good Hope in 1488 and reaching India in 1497.
From trade outposts in these newly discovered lands, exotic goods flowed
into Lisbon; where they were then distributed to the growing market for them in
France, Spain, England, Italy and other parts of Europe. The Irish merchants became involved in this
15th-century trade, and the prospered.
With their success, the merchants set up permanent operations in Lisbon,
and encouraged other Irish to come to Lisbon to start businesses or take part
in the adventure of Portuguese exploration.
After the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, Portugal was even
more attractive to the Irish because it was a Catholic country where they could
freely practise their religion after leaving Ireland to escape the English laws
suppressing it. The émigrés concentrated
in Lisbon, which was the only major city and areas of worthwhile commercial
activity in the small country of Portugal at the time. As their numbers in Lisbon grew and their
wealth increased, the influence of the Irish in Portugal also grew.
The
blossoming relationship between the Irish and the Portuguese at the beginning
of the early modern period was not an extension of a medieval tradition, as it
was in Spain or France. Prior to 1143,
when Portugal gained its independence from the Kingdom of Castile, it was
considered a province of Spain by everyone in Europe, including the Irish. During the Middle Ages when wandering Irish
monks came to Spain, few of them actually lived in the territory that would eventually
become Portugal. In the 1400's, Irish
merchants became interested in Portugal as the Portuguese built a large fleet
of ships for exploration and trade under the leadership of Prince Henry, called
"the Navigator" for his keen interest in maritime affairs. In Galway, Cork and Waterford, the sight of
Portuguese ships was common. Irish
merchants purchased the Madeira wine and blocks of cork that the Portuguese
crews offloaded onto the quays. Then
the Irish paid the ship's captain for the transport of their own butter, wool
and beef to the vessel's next port of call.
As Portugal
discovered new lands and established colonies around the world, Lisbon grew
into a bustling commercial port. It
attracted a polyglot assortment of adventurers and merchants from all over
Europe. A record exists from 1462
granting permission to reside in Lisbon to Richard May, Geoffrey Galway, and
the brothers John and Dominic Lynch, all born in Ireland. They were merchants acting as agents for
Irish importers, most likely in the wine trade.
Some of the Irish in Lisbon also entered royal service because they had
impressed the Portuguese rulers with their learning. In the 1450's, Prince Henry sent a captured
African lion to Galway as a gift for an unnamed Irish retainer who had left the
Prince's service and returned to his homeland.
By the
middle of the 16th century, there was a thriving Irish community in
Lisbon. Because all of the goods from
the vast Portuguese Empire had to first pass through Lisbon on their way to
other European ports, Irish merchants could eliminate the need for a Portuguese
broker by establishing permanent offices in the city. Usually they sent their younger sons to
Portugal to act as agents for the family import-export business. These Irish agents bought spices from Asia,
teak wood from the Amazon Basin and other exotic goods, and arranged for their
shipment not only to Ireland, but also to other European ports for distribution
throughout the Continent. Lisbon also
provided commercial opportunities for Irish émigrés who had only limited
capital. A relatively small investment
in a Portuguese overseas voyage could reap an enormous profit if the ship
successfully returned laden with goods from the Far East or the Americas.
The Irish
merchants residing in Portugal became increasingly important to the country's
economy after the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. Since the Irish remained Catholic, they were
acceptable in Portuguese society. But
because the Irish were technically English subjects, they could trade more
easily with the Protestant nations of Europe.
This was crucial for Portugal's economic relationship with England and
the Netherlands. As England prospered,
its demand for Madeira wine, spices from the Orient and other items from
Portuguese colonies increased sharply.
The Dutch cities of Antwerp and Bruges were also vital to Portuguese
commerce because they provided access to the markets of central Europe for
imports from the Portuguese colonies.
During times of war with Portugal, the English and Dutch ports were
closed to Portuguese ships. Even during
times of peace, religious and economic rivalries could prevent Portuguese
merchants from selling their goods in important northern European markets. But as "Englishmen", the Irish of
Lisbon were readily granted permission to dock and offload their cargoes in the
ports of England and other Protestant nations.
Like their
counterparts in Spain, France, and the other countries of Europe, the Irish
merchants living in Portugal were never isolated from the people and culture
around them. They intermarried with the
Portuguese, weaving an intricate pattern of family relationships. One series of marriages linked Christopher
Columbus with Patrick Sarsfield, the leader of the
Wild Geese. Columbus married a
Portuguese woman when he lived in Lisbon to try to interest King Joao II of
Portugal in his project for sailing the Atlantic. When he moved on to the court of Aragon in
pursuit of his dream, he left his children behind. His descendant Catalina Colón,
as the surname Columbus was spelled in Portuguese, married James Fitzjames Stuart in the early 1700's, the illegitimate son
of Patrick Sarsfield's widow, Lady Honoré Sarsfield.
The Irish
merchants in Lisbon also took part in the Great Armada launched by Spain in
1588 to invade England. Eight years
before, the death of King Sebastao without an heir
left Philip II of Spain with a claim to the Portuguese throne since he was Sebastao's cousin.
He quickly annexed Portugal, making it a part of the Spanish
Empire. The change of monarchs and
political structure had little impact on the business affairs of the Irish
merchants living in Portugal. When the
call went out for pilots and interpreters to sail with the Armada, many Irish
merchants volunteered. Spanish records
listed the master gunner John Lynch, the mariners William Brown and Cahill MacConnor among the Irish who sailed on the flagship of the
Duke of Medina Sidonia, the commander of the
expedition. As seamen and merchants, the
émigrés were familiar with both English and Irish waters. Although their native tongue was Irish, many
were fluent in the English language, which would be useful for the planned
Spanish invasion of England. With the
addition of the services of the Irish émigrés in Lisbon, Philip II felt that
his preparations to invade England were complete. Few of the émigrés could have guessed that
the mighty Spanish fleet would be turned back by the English navy. Ironically, a few of the Irish volunteers
found themselves shipwrecked in Ireland when a storm drove some of the ships of
the Armada onto the rocks of the Irish coastline.
At the time
of the Flight of the Irish Earls in 1605, Portugal's fortunes were waning. The land was a province of Spain,
distinguishable from other Spanish provinces only by the dialect spoken by its
inhabitants. Many of the other nations
of Europe had established colonies around the world, depriving Portugal of its
virtual monopoly over the exotic spices and goods from its Asian and South
American colonies. Yet Lisbon remained
an important Atlantic port for distribution of goods from Portugal's Asian and
American colonies.
Despite the
ability of the Irish to freely move between both the Protestant and Catholic
marketplaces of Europe, they were not numerous enough to stem Portugal's
gradual economic decline in the 17th century.
The Irish merchants of Lisbon did, however, help to keep alive a
Portuguese tradition of international commerce which proved essential to the
economy of the tiny nation when it regained its independence in 1640.
THE IRISH DIPLOMAT
In 1640, a
group of Portuguese nobles stages a coup d'etat in
Lisbon and arrested the Spanish governor.
They then declared Portugal to be once again an independent nation and
invited the Duke of Bragança to reign as King Joao
IV. Spain did not immediately challenge
the revolution. At the time, the
province of Cataluña was also in rebellion, and Spain
did not have the military forces to fight two wars on its home territory. So by default, Portugal achieved its
independence.
The task
facing King Joao IV was formidable.
After sixty years of Spanish rule, Portugal no longer had an army, a
navy or even an efficient method of collecting taxes. At any moment, Spain might resolve its
dispute with Cataluña and march its army towards
Portugal. To be prepared for this
possibility, the new king made each region responsible for raising a military
force and collecting revenues for the central government in Lisbon. Concerned that the forces he was raising
might not be equipped or trained in time to challenge any Spanish invasion, in
1648 King Joao sent an Irish priest, Father Daniel O'Daly,
O.P., on a secret mission to Ireland to try to recruit Irish soldiers with
experience in fighting the English to form the nucleus of the Portuguese army.
Daniel O'Daly was a well-known Irish émigré figure in Lisbon,
where he was known by his Portuguese name of Frei
Domingo de Rosario. He was an active
member of the Dominican order of monks who founded the monastery of Corpo Santo as well as an Irish College in Lisbon. O'Daly also became
the confessor of Joao's wife, Queen Luisa.
In those days, confessors were more than spiritual advisors. In the royal palace of Lisbon, O'Daly often discussed matters of state with Luisa. So when the King decided to recruit Irish
soldiers for the Portuguese Army, Father O'Daly
naturally came to mind.
Daniel of O'Daly arrived in Ireland at a time when Oliver Cromwell's
war against Irish Catholics was devastating the country. Famine and pestilence followed in the wake of
crop burnings and livestock slaughtering by Cromwell's armies. The defeated Irish soldiers hiding in the
countryside were eager to join the service of England's enemies abroad. Even so, O'Daly did
not attract a large number of Irish with his recruitment drive. The pay scale that he could offer was far
lower than the wages for service in the armies of France or Spain. When Portugal regained its independence,
there was no royal treasury and King Joao depended on a tax on imports and
exports for most of the funds necessary to rule the nation. Revenues from the import-export trade tried
up because Spanish markets were closed to Portugal; and because the Netherlands
was at war with Spain and continued to regard Portugal as a Spanish
province. Portuguese merchants were
forbidden from trading in Bruges or Antwerp.
So O'Daly could entice the Irish soldiers only
with the promise of glory and the hope of eventual financial rewards. When the small number of Irish recruits he
attracted arrived in Portugal, they were scattered throughout the army as
junior officers and drill sergeants. O'Daly did manage to convince the experienced field
commander Murrough O'Brien, Lord Inchquin,
to accept a general's commission in Joao's army. But when he arrived in Portugal, O'Brien
quickly grew dismayed by the state of the army and returned to Ireland.
King Joao
IV considered O'Daly's mission a success even though
he did not persuade many Irishmen to join the Portuguese army. The small number of Irish soldiers who did
join the Portuguese army were given the task of training the inexperienced
Portuguese troops in the tactics and strategy the Irish had developed in their
conflicts against the English. The Irish
military trainers taught the Portuguese the flanking manoeuvres they used
against enemy formations so the Irish could bring their superior swordsmanship
into play. This tactic had helped the
Irish overcome the English advantage in having artillery batteries and the most
advanced muskets. The Irish also
stressed the use of cavalry to break up enemy formations or to reinforce weak
positions. This instruction and drill by
the Irish was appropriate for Joao's incipient Portuguese army because, like
the Irish fighting the English, the Portuguese did not have the funds to be
able to purchase the latest artillery, muskets and other military
equipment. By following the tactics and
strategy taught to them by their Irish trainers recruited by O'Daly, the Portuguese army would be able to be an
effective fighting force on the battlefields of 17th-century Europe. Under the Irish instruction, the Portuguese
army was turned into a fighting force that would deter Spain from believing
that it could easily reclaim Portugal - which was King Joao's primary aim for O'Daly's mission.
A few years
after O'Daly's return to Lisbon, Joao IV entrusted
him with another diplomatic mission of great importance to the survival of
Portugal. O'Daly
was sent to France and the Netherlands to try to obtain international
recognition for the independent status of Portugal and, if possible, establish
military alliances. Because France and
the Netherlands were at war with Spain and regarded Portugal as a province of
Spain, Portuguese ships were denied access to French and Dutch ports. Once Portugal achieved international
recognition, Joao IV could then make treaties which would allow the goods from
Portuguese colonies to be delivered in markets closed to Spain.
At the time
of O'Daly's mission to France and the Netherlands,
only England accepted Portugal as a sovereign nation because of a treaty signed
in 1642 by Charles I in one of his last acts in office. The treaty was ratified by the new English
government after Charles I was deposed by Cromwell. England hoped to benefit from an alliance
with Portugal by using Lisbon as a naval base.
With England recovering from many years of civil strife, however, Joao
IV could expect little military assistance if Portugal was attacked by Spain in
an effort to win back its wayward province.
In 1656, O'Daly went to Paris for talks about forming an alliance
against Spain with the Prime Minister of France, Cardinal Mazarin. O'Daly strongly
urged Mazarin to take the lead in forming a league among
Portugal, France and the Netherlands against Spain. O'Daly proposed
that this league would include Portugal as a full ally of France and the
Netherlands, but would not require that Portugal declare war on Spain unless
attacked. Such a league would not only
gain recognition for Portugal from two major European powers, but would also
allow Portugal to trade with France and the Netherlands as well as provide
military assistance if attacked by Spain.
Although France was already at war with Spain, Mazarin
initially told O'Daly that he saw no advantage to
France from such a league because he believed that continued Portuguese
independence depended on Joao IV, and would not endure if the King should
die. Mazarin
changed his mind, however, after Joao IV died in November of 1656 and the crown
passed to the King's young son with Queen Luisa as regent without provoking a
rebellion or an attack from Spain. Mazarin granted O'Daly a partial
alliance by agreeing to provide military aid to Portugal, but on the condition
that Queen Luisa took the initiative and attacked Spain. Since Portugal did not have the resources to
challenge Spain, the compact had very little substance as a military alliance,
but it did gain French recognition of Portugal's sovereignty and open French
ports to Portuguese shipping. Other
nations quickly followed the lead of France, including the Netherlands with its
markets that were essential for the Portuguese economy.
O'Daly travelled on to Rome, to the court of Pope Alexander
VII. There he obtained official papal
recognition for the independent state of Portugal. In staunchly Catholic Portugal, the approval
of the Pope was necessary to defuse a growing conflict between the civil
government and the Portuguese Inquisition.
Before his death, Joao IV attempted to reduce the severity of the
methods used by the Inquisition, which retaliated by questioning his authority
to rule. Papal recognition would restore
some of the support that the Portuguese government had lost because of the
frequent challenges of the Inquisition.
In order to gain the Pope's recognition, however, O'Daly
had to assure the Pope that the new Queen Luisa had no intention of continuing
Joao IV's policies of interfering with Church matters in Portugal.
A few
months later, in 1657, Spain sent its army across the Portuguese border to
reclaim what it still regarded as a rebellious province and captured the city
of Olivença.
The invasion caused a crisis in the high command of the Portuguese Army,
and for a time it appeared as if Spanish soldiers would soon be marching
through Lisbon. But France, England and
the Netherlands were also at war with Spain in a dispute over economic and
territorial interests in the Caribbean.
The threat to Spain's holdings in Flanders and the West Indies, and the
possibility of invasion along its northern border with France limited the
number of Spanish troops available to fight on the Portuguese front. Spain eventually lost the war with France,
England and the Netherlands, and the victorious allies insisted that Spain abandon its claim of sovereignty over
Portugal and recognize it as an independent nation. Spain acquiesced, withdrawing its troops from
Portuguese territory.
During the
first two decades of Portuguese independence, Daniel O'Daly's
Irish heritage opened diplomatic doors that might have been closed to someone
of Portuguese birth. The Irish émigrés
in Europe, particularly in France and the Papal States of Italy, had a
reputation for honouring their word.
Many of O'Daly's fellow émigrés were in
positions of power in the French government and were certain to have smoothed
his negotiation with Mazarin. The international relationships that O'Daly forged for Portugal were critical for the nation's
commercial and political survival. For these
accomplishments, Daniel O'Daly entered Portuguese
history as a key figure in maintaining the independence of his adopted land.
THE GALLOPING HOGAN
In the
early 18th century, the Irish émigré Michael Hogan played a key role in a
crucial moment of Portuguese history.
Leading a brigade of Portuguese cavalry, Hogan drove a Spanish invasion
force from Portuguese territory. In
accomplishing this, Hogan employed tactics that he had used successfully
against the English in Ireland. In
Ireland, Hogan's extraordinary skill as a horseman had earned him the name the
"Galloping Hogan". His skill
and leadership were especially evident after the Irish defeat in the Battle of
the Boyne in 1690. Hogan led the
rearguard protecting the retreat of the defeated Irish to Limerick, keeping the
retreat from becoming a rout. During the
subsequent siege of Limerick by the English army led by King William, Hogan led
a daring midnight raid on the English artillery train approaching the
city. While the artillerymen were bivouacked
for the night, Hogan attacked the English camp, captured or drove off the
English soldiers, and blew up the cannon.
This prevented the English from using their artillery to destroy the
walls of Limerick. Eventually, however,
the Irish were forced to surrender.
Hogan was a member of the body of Irish troops who chose exile rather
than take an oath of loyalty to King William and became known as the Wild
Geese. In 1691, Hogan went to France
where he became an officer in the Irish Brigade and was promoted to general
after distinguishing himself in several battles in Flanders.
Hogan's
duel with a fellow officer of the Brigade in 1705 was the incident which led to
his going to Portugal. Although Louis
XIV had issued an edict in 1679 prohibiting duelling, the nobility flaunted the
law and continued to duel whenever they believed their honour was
compromised. Because duelling was such a
common practice in French society and involved many prominent nobles, despite
his ban, Louis XIV frequently granted pardons or reduced the punishments of
surviving duellists. In the military,
there were additional regulations against duelling to prevent soldiers of lower
rank from challenging their superiors, thereby undermining military
discipline. Hogan's opponent in the duel
was Captain James Conway, whom Hogan later discovered was his cousin. When they faced each other with pistols,
Hogan mortally wounded Conway, causing a scandal in the Irish Brigade. In 1706, a court-martial tried Hogan and
demanded his resignation from the army, but ordered no additional
punishment. Since Hogan's duel had also
violated the King's edict against duelling, he faced civil charges as
well. But Louis XIV decided to grant
Hogan a pardon because of his exemplary service in the Irish Brigade while in
Flanders. His career as an officer in
the French army was at an end, however.
Louis XIV suggested to Hogan that his military skills and leadership
could be put to good use in Portugal, and gave Hogan a letter of recommendation
to King Joao V.
Following
the King's suggestion, Hogan went to Lisbon in 1708 to present himself to King
Joao V. Recognizing Hogan's value to his
own inexperienced army, the King immediately gave him a commission as Brigadier
General in the Portuguese army. As a
sign that he now considered Portugal his home, Hogan changed his name to André
Miguel Hogan.
Hogan
arrived in Portugal during the War of Spanish Succession. In this conflict, an alliance of England, the
Netherlands and Austria was trying to preserve the European balance of power by
preventing the new Spanish King, Philip V, from also becoming the King of
France. Although Portugal was not a part
of the alliance against Spain, King Joao V was nonetheless concerned that Spain
might find the war against the other European powers an excuse to try to annex
parts of Portugal.
Hogan's
first assignment as Brigadier General was the command of a cavalry brigade
stationed along the border with Spain in central Portugal. Although it was not until the war was almost
over that Hogan's brigade came into combat, it was not idle in its defensive
position. For more than three years,
Hogan had been teaching his cavalry troop the hit-and-run tactics he had used
so effectively against the English in Ireland.
Hogan especially emphasized the night manoeuvring and attack the English
found difficult to defend against. Such
night-time tactics for a fairly large force were based on stealth and silence
and on the ability of the force to stay together in the darkness. Such tactics were rare in the warfare of the
early 1800's. This training proved its
worth in the closing stage of the War of Spanish Succession when Spain made a
bold, forceful attempt to seize a portion of Portuguese territory in order to
strengthen its position in the peace negotiations which had opened in Utrecht
in Belgium.
The Marquis
de Bey of Spain led the attack on Portugal. During this invasion, his savagery towards
both soldiers and civilians earned him the title "The Scourge of
Portugal". The sole barrier between
the Marquis and Lisbon and the court of King Joao V was the fortified town of
Campo Maior garrisoned by a small infantry unit under
the command of the Count de Riberia. As the Spanish approached, de Riberia sent a courier to Hogan at the headquarters of the
Portuguese cavalry requesting reinforcements.
Although dusk was gathering when the news arrived, Brigadier General
Michael Hogan mustered a force of 500 men and led the mounted troop through the
darkness in a ride reminiscent of his raid on King William's artillery train
during the siege of Limerick. Hogan's
men reinforced the garrison at Campo Maior at dawn;
and although badly outnumbered, Hogan's troops and de Riberia's
garrison repulsed the Spanish assault.
Not only as
a dramatic military feat, but also as a model of advanced tactics, Hogan's
night-time manoeuvre and role in the defeat of the Spanish invasion force
became a part of military history.
Hogan's feat became so noteworthy that the historian John O'Callaghan
was prompted to include it in his The History of the Irish Brigade in the
Service of France, not only because of Hogan's one-time service in the
Brigade, but also as an example of the fighting spirit and innovative tactics
typical of the Brigade.
The last
affair of arms in this war between Spain and Portugal occurred in the campaign
of 1712, under circumstances so creditable to the Irish officer as to deserve
notice here, though that gentleman was not of the Irish Brigade. Notwithstanding the negotiations for peace at
Utrecht, no truce having taken place by September between the two peninsular
kingdoms, the Marquis de Bey (styled "The
Scourge of the Portuguese") appeared on the 28th, with nearly 20,000 men
before Campo Maior in Portugal and broke ground,
October 4th-5th, the place being then in anything but a condition to make
suitable resistance. As, however, it was
of the utmost consequence to preserve it, the Count de Riberia
and a gallant French Protestant engineer officer, Brigadier de Massi, contrived a day or two after to make their way into
the town with 200 or 300 Portuguese grenadiers, and 400 or 500 more Portuguese
subsequently succeeded in doing so likewise under an Irish Officer, Major
General Hogan - apparently the same M. Hogan, Irlandaise
Lieutenant Colonel in the Bavarian Guards tried by Court Martial in 1706 at Mons for killing a Captain and countryman of his own in a
duel, and hence, most probably, obliged to enter another service. Having assumed command of the garrison, the
Major General [At the time of Campo Maior, Hogan was a Brigadier General.] took due measures for the defence. After battering and bombing the place from
October 4th with 33 cannons and mortars, the Marquis de Bey
ordered a grand assault to be made on the 27th, in the morning, by 15 battalions,
32 companies of grenadiers and a regiment of dismounted dragoons, under
Lieutenant General Zuniga.
"By
help of a prodigious fire from the cannons and small arms, observes my English
narrative of the Compleat History of Europe
for 1712, with respect to the enemy, they made a descent into a part of the
ditch that was dry and gave 3 assaults with a great deal of fury; but they were
as bravely repulsed by the Portuguese under Major General Hogan, and forced to
retire after an obstinate fight that lasted 2 hours, though the breach was very
practicable, and so wide that 30 men might stand abreast in it. Their disorder was so great that they left
most of their arms and 6 ladders behind.
This action cost them 700 men killed and wounded, whereas the Portuguese
loss did not amount to above 100 killed and 87 wounded, and such was their
ardour that they pursued the enemy into their very trenches without any manner
of order (notwithstanding the endeavours of Major General Hogan to put a stop
to them), which might have proved very fatal to them, if the enemy had courage
to improve the opportunity."
The next
day, the Spanish lifted the siege and moved back into Spanish territory, ending
the threat to Portugal. A short time
later, the delegates to the peace conference in Utrecht signed a treaty and the
War of Spanish Succession ended with Portuguese territory intact. King Joao recognized Portugal's debt to
Michael Hogan by promoting him to Major General and awarding him a villa and an
annual stipend. Hogan continued to serve
in the army of Joao V, teaching other officers horsemanship and cavalry
tactics. He married a woman related to
the royal family of Bragança and was a frequent
visitor to the King's court in Lisbon.
Michael
Hogan's night ride to Campo Maior became legendary in
the Portuguese cavalry. From the success
of this action, other army officers came to view cavalry as a highly mobile
strike force that could quickly be sent to the point of greatest threat. As obvious as relying on the mobility of cavalry
may seem today, it required Hogan's extraordinary achievement to make the
tactic a part of Portuguese military operations.
IRISH CONFLICT WITH THE
PORTUGUESE INQUISITION
In both Portugal and Spain, the Irish rarely became
targets of the Inquisition. Nearly all
of them were devout Catholics. In
addition, since they were considered refugees from Protestant persecution, they
were given a higher status by the clergy than individuals who had not suffered
for the sake of their Catholic beliefs.
But as the 18th century unfolded, a series of events occurred that
placed the Hogan family in direct conflict with the Portuguese Inquisition.
On the
basis of his important role in the War of Spanish Succession, Michael Hogan
came to have considerable influence on the political affairs of Portugal as
well as its military affairs. His
brother, John, and a relative, Jacob (probably a cousin), also rose to the rank
of general. Like Michael Hogan, they
married women with ties to the royal family of Bragança. Portuguese historical records encapsulating
the patrimony and achievements of the Hogans also
hint at the reason the Hogan family came into such a serious confrontation with
the Portuguese Inquisition.
An entry
from a document in the Portuguese National Archives in Torre
do Tombo concerning Dennis Hogan, the son of Michael
Hogan, reads:
Dennis (or Dionysius) Hogan, 30 years old, Irish,
native of Vilanova county of Tipperary, lieutenant of
cavalry in the Alcantara regiment, resident of Janelas Verdes {Green Windows},
parish of Santos. This Dennis Hogan came
to Portugal in 1724 and was appointed cavalry lieutenant on November 5, 1734,
in recognition of services rendered to our country during nine years, by his
uncle John Hogan; ... Dennis Hogan became a Mason in 1737.
The
incidental notation that Dennis Hogan became a Mason discloses the cause of the
Hogan family's troubles with the Inquisition.
The Masonic brotherhood was a particular target of the Portuguese
Inquisition during the 1730's. The
secret society embraced atheism and republicanism, concepts that the Catholic
Church believed undermined its authority.
The Masonic Order began during medieval times as a guild of builders who
recognized no religion and paid homage to no king. Despite their controversial nature, because
of their unique architectural skills, the Masons were welcomed by the nobles in
the major cities of Europe to build cathedrals and universities. The society flourished and used its wealth to
influence kings and nobles by making secret loans to finance military
campaigns. The growing political power
of the Masonic Order attracted ambitious men who had little to do with
construction, but hoped to benefit from the powerful, yet clandestine brotherhood. By the 18th century, its members were known
as Freemasons and the order was growing rapidly. It was becoming popular particularly among
the aristocracy and political leaders of Catholic nations who resented the
interferences of the Church in civil affairs.
In a time when oaths were taken very seriously, the vow to secrecy taken
by each Freemason was intended to prevent infiltration of the organization by
agents of the Catholic curia.
Recognizing the Freemasons as a dangerous movement, Pope Innocent VIII
strongly condemned them in the 1720's.
Dennis
Hogan was attracted to the Freemasons because of their desire to limit the
power of the Catholic Church in Portugal.
For centuries, the Catholic clergy maintained a political grip on
Portugal by using the Inquisition to accuse even the highest-born nobles of
heresy whenever they attempted to interfere with Church laws or property. Like many other Irish in Portugal, Dennis
considered this Catholic religious oppression little different from the
Protestant religious oppression in Ireland.
The Holy
Inquisition was a Church institution created by Pope Gregory IX in 1231 to
discover and punish heresy throughout Europe.
A special branch of the Holy Inquisition was created in Spain and
Portugal by papal decree at the close of the 15th century. The Catholic hierarchy of the Iberian
Peninsula believed that the large numbers of Moslem Moors and Jews residing in
their land increased the possibility that Christians would hear and respond to
heretical teachings. Rooting out and
eliminating the Jewish and Moslem religions required sterner measures than were
usually employed by the Holy Inquisition in other parts of Europe. This was the origin of the infamous Spanish
Inquisition, which was intended to ensure conformity with Catholicism. It terrorized not only the Moors and Jews,
but also many Christians of Spain and Portugal until the 19th century.
Dennis
Hogan knew that the methods used by the Inquisition were as terroristic
and brutal in Portugal as they were in Spain.
Regardless of social rank, a man or woman could be arrested by the
Inquisition on the faintest suspicion of heresy and subjected to torture if
they did not immediately confess. If the
prisoner confessed, his or her life might be spared, providing it was a first
offence. If prisoners failed to confess
to heresy, or if it was a second conviction, they were turned over to the civil
authorities for execution because the Catholic Church prohibited the clergy
from carrying out a death sentence. To
demonstrate their support of Catholic doctrine, government officials organized
public burnings of heretics, which the Portuguese termed the auto da fé, the act of faith. Sometimes the men and women sentenced to
death were kept in prison until the authorities had enough condemned people to
stage a mass execution. These public
spectacles were meant to warn others of the consequences of deviating from
Catholic doctrine. Afterwards, all of
the property of the executed heretic was confiscated by the Church, thus
creating a financial incentive for the Inquisition.
Along with
many other educated Portuguese, Dennis Hogan believed that the activities of
the Portuguese Inquisition unreasonably harmed innocent people and severely
hampered the economic development of the nation. Foreign merchants from Protestant lands
hesitated to invest in Portugal for fear that their agents would be arrested
and their goods confiscated. Special
permission was required from the Inquisition for a Protestant foreigner to live
in Lisbon, but they were not immune from arrest if they spoke an ill-considered
word that conflicted with Catholic teachings.
Any native Portuguese who amassed wealth automatically came under the
scrutiny of the Inquisitors. A single
ancestor who was Moslem or Jewish, no matter how remote, could bring the charge
that a person was a "lapsed Christian" who secretly practised another
religion. The activity of the
Inquisition in northern Portugal, where Dennis Hogan lived, was especially
virulent in the 1730's. So many people were
arrested that whole towns were deserted and prosperous businesses were ruined
by neglect and mismanagement following confiscations.
Although
Dennis Hogan opposed the Inquisition, he did not take the dangerous step of
taking the Freemason's oath until after the great auto da
fé in Lisbon in 1737. At this spectacle, twelve people were burned
at the stake and thousands of others stripped of their property and condemned
to lesser punishments. All of the
accused were from the northern province where Dennis lived, and among them were
many of Dennis' friends and acquaintances.
The population of his native city of Bragança
and the surrounding region had been decimated by the Inquisition a few years
before. Many of the aristocrats,
including his stepmother related to the royal House of Bragança,
felt that there should be an end to the Inquisition, but few of them dared
speak their thoughts openly. By joining
the secret society of Freemasons, Dennis Hogan was able to collaborate with
others opposed to the injustices of the Inquisition.
Before
long, Dennis Hogan was named a Freemason to the Inquisition. He may have been named by one of the many
informers the Inquisition had throughout Portugal; or by someone in the hands
of the Inquisition hoping for mercy by giving the Inquisition the names of
other heretics. Hogan was arrested on
the ecclesiastical charge of heresy and the civil charge of treason. At the same time, the Inquisition arrested
seven other Irish military officers for the same crimes. To save himself from torture, Dennis
immediately confessed and gave lengthy depositions in which he claimed
ignorance that the Pope in Rome had outlawed Freemasonry.
During the
time of Dennis' imprisonment, his father, Michael, worked tirelessly to obtain
his release. Michael knew he was placing
himself in jeopardy since any persons who tried to help those accused by the
Inquisition were themselves automatically suspect. But Major General Michael Hogan was well into
his sixties and had never before succumbed to his personal fears. When his political connections at the royal
court proved powerless to intervene, he tracked down the Scotsman named Gordon
who had recruited Dennis and the other Irish officers for the Freemasons. Gordon gave him a signed statement showing
that Dennis agreed to an addendum to the Mason's oath that guaranteed his
loyalty to the King of Portugal and to the Roman Catholic Church. Perhaps this document conveyed the truth. Perhaps it was a crafty invention by a
frantic father. Whatever Dennis actually
swore to was never known since Michael arranged for Gordon to flee from
Portugal to prevent any further testimony.
Yet this statement combined with the prestige of the three Hogan
generals and the royal house of Bragança secured the
release of Dennis Hogan. The young
Lieutenant returned to military service with no apparent prejudice to his
career. He eventually advanced to the
rank of Major General by the time he retired.
The brief
misadventure of Dennis strengthened the Hogan family's resolve to support any
movement to loosen the grip of the Inquisition over the Portuguese people. This resolve was rooted in their oath as
military officers to defend the monarchy and the nation against internal enemies
as well as foreign ones. By the 1740's,
the Hogans, along with many other leaders of
Portuguese society, viewed the Inquisition as a threat to Portugal. The Inquisition not only undermined their
authority, it also threatened them personally with arrest, imprisonment and
confiscation of their property. The
Hogan generals became part of a secret group of government ministers and
military officers who met to plan the best way to limit the power of the
Inquisition. A prominent member of the
group was Sebastian Cavalho e Mello, the Marquis de Pombal, who was related to Dennis Hogan by marriage. Although this group failed to agree on any
specific plan, the members agreed to support one another if any opportunity
arose to challenge the authority of the Inquisition.
It was
several years before circumstances presented themselves so that the group was
in a position to take effective action towards their aim of curtailing the
Inquisition's power. During the 1740's,
the Marquis de Pombal
was Portugal's ambassador to England, and then Austria. While in England, he gained a reputation as a
liberal statesman for his regular assurances that Portugal was ready for the
economic and political reforms which would make it attractive for
investments. While posted in Vienna, he
observed that the Catholic monarchy of Empress Maria Theresa remained popular,
strong, and effective without oppressing Protestant sects and other religious
minorities. In 1751, the Marquis
returned to Lisbon to be appointed Prime Minister. One of the first acts after his appointment was
to order that all prison sentences imposed by the Inquisition had to be
confirmed by the civil government. The
Marquis put himself at risk of being charged with heresy by the Inquisition. But the Marquis was able to take this risk
because he had the full support of the Army.
By this time, Dennis Hogan had risen to the rank of Major General. Dennis informed the leaders of the
Inquisition that he would use his troops to protect the Marquis from arrest,
and he used his influence among other generals to persuade them to back the
civil government's challenge to the power of the Church. Faced with defiance from both the government
and the military, the Inquisition agreed to accept the Marquis' order to allow
its prison sentences to be confirmed by the government.
The Marquis
de Pombal continued to issue decrees to end the power
of the Inquisition in Portugal. But the
Inquisition was so entrenched in Portuguese society that in many areas local
civil authorities continued to approve executions of heretics for another ten
years. It was not until 1771 that the
government was able to permanently outlaw the public burning of religious
dissenters. Dennis Hogan played an
important part in curtailing the power of the Inquisition. His encouragement of the Marquis de Pombal and his open support of the Marquis at the critical
hour in 1751 helped Portugal shed the yoke of religious oppression.
In other
European countries, Irish émigrés influenced societies in specific areas such
as education, military affairs, or agriculture.
But in Portugal, the Irish had a direct and identifiable involvement in
shaping events that affected all parts of Portuguese society. Daniel O'Daly
secured international economic and political ties for Portugal in a time when
its survival as an independent nation was in doubt. The markets he opened and the alliances he
established benefited all of the people of Portugal, from the peasant ploughing
a field to the dragoon patrolling the border.
Michael Hogan helped preserve Portuguese independence. Dennis Hogan helped to alter the course of
Portuguese society by curbing the abuses of the Inquisition, an institution
which hampered the economic and intellectual development of the nation and
unjustly killed thousands of Portuguese citizens. The Irish in Portugal were able to play such
a prominent role in the development of Portuguese society because the nation
was small, allowing their actions to have an immediate, widespread effect.