INTRODUCTION
See, cut in woods,
through flood of twin horned Rhine
passed the keel and,
greased, slips over seas –
Heave men! And let resounding echo sound our heave!
The winds raise
blasts, wild rain-storms wreak their spite
but ready strength of
men subdues all –
Heave men! And let resounding echo sound our heave!
- The Boat Song of Columbanus, c. 610 A.D.
One of the
first of a long line of Irish émigrés to strongly influence affairs on the
European continent was a monk named Columbanus. Accompanied by twelve of his followers, he
voyaged to France in 591 A.D., forever abandoning his native Ireland. Columbanus was
forty-seven years old, an advanced age for such a bold undertaking in an era
when many people died young from disease and hardship. But his desire to perform missionary work
seemed to meld with the penchant for wandering in his Celtic heritage to create
in him an overwhelming urge to voyage abroad.
Columbanus chose to leave behind the security of his
monastery and the companionship of his brother monks because travelling abroad
was the only way he could become a "White Martyr". This was a uniquely Irish concept of how a
man or woman could gain spiritual merit.
Since monks like Columbanus enjoyed high
status and prestige in the Christian communities of Ireland, they could escape
the temptation of pride from their social prominence only by travelling to a
distant land where they would live humbly among strangers who would not give
them special status. These Irish monks
were not like the traditional "Red Martyrs" of the Christian faith
who were tortured and executed for their beliefs, securing eternal rewards
after enduring a relatively brief period of torment. Instead, the "White Martyrs"
suffered daily pangs of loss for the family and friends they would never see
again, an anguish they would carry with them all of their lives. According to the Celtic version of
Christianity, both Red and White Martyrs earned equal amounts of virtue.
The urge
which inspired Columbanus and his fellow monks to forsake
their monastic home and companions in Ireland for the unknown of continental
Europe went deeper than their professed desire to become White Martyrs for
their Christian faith. This urge to
wander was a part of their Celtic cultural heritage. For more than a thousand years before them,
the Celts had roamed extensively throughout Europe and parts of Asia, spreading
out from their traditional homeland in the Danube River basin. When a new community of Celts grew so large
that the surrounding forests were stripped bare and the streams polluted, some
members of the community would leave to take the strain off the dwindling
resources and to find a new place where they could settle. This cultural practice ingrained in the Celts
a readiness to move to new locations as a way to overcome undesirable
conditions and an ingenuity for adapting to new circumstances and recognizing
their promise. As generation after
generation fell into this pattern of migration, the idea of wandering became a
part of the Celtic worldview. It was
seen not only as a practical answer to troublesome conditions, but also as a
challenge and adventure testing the character and the ingenuity of an
individual. The idea of wandering took a
central place in the lore of the Celts.
It is reflected in the intricate spirals and repetitive motifs of Celtic
art. This idea of wandering could take
the form of an entire clan seeking a new place to live or an individual joining
a foreign army as a mercenary or journeying alone to explore the wonders of the
world. The religious concept of the
White Martyr which prompted Columbanus and his
followers to leave their homeland for France was yet another manifestation of
the Celtic desire to wander.
By 591
A.D., what is now modern France was broken into three kingdoms - Neustria along the Atlantic coast, Austrasia
in the north, and Bergundy in the central and eastern
part. Each kingdom was ruled by a
descendant of Clovis, a warlord who had temporarily united all of France in 480
A.D. Each king bitterly hated his
cousins, and they endlessly fought petty wars that impoverished both peasants
and nobles alike.
Columbanus came ashore in Neustria
and continued to wander with his band of monks to the Kingdom of Bergundy, ruled by Childerbert. Trudging across France, Columbanus
passed peasants whose poverty made their lives an endless grind of toil and
misery. His own native land of Ireland
had been relatively prosperous with its fertile soil producing an abundance of
food which easily supported farmers, scholars and nobility. The rolling hills and lush meadows of France
were capable of producing similarly large harvests, yet privation plagued both Neustria and Burgundy.
Despite constant attention by the peasants, the fields where they grew
wheat and rye produced only small yields.
Eventually Columbanus's journey brought him to King Childerbert's stronghold in the Saône
Valley. Although he called himself a
king, Childerbert did not have much wealth. The general poverty of the region affected
even the King. He could barely
administer his realm. Childerbert had only a small amount of gold, and he did not
even have the benefit of adequate supplies of farm products or farm animals
which could have made up for his deficiency of precious metals. The same primitive agricultural methods Columbanus had encountered in his journey across France
were practised in Burgundy - which left little surplus crops for the King. Childerbert had to
pay his troops and retainers with parcels of land, further diminishing his holdings
and his revenues. Yet he needed the
continued military support of many men-at-arms for wars of both aggression and
defence with his neighbours. Donations
to bishops and priests were also necessary so that they would support the king
in his squabbles with rebellious nobles and rival monarchs.
Adding to
King Childerbert's difficulties in governing his
realm was his domineering mother, the Queen Regent Brunhilde. Beautiful and ill-tempered, she controlled Childerbert and many of the other nobles in Burgundy with
the strength of her personality. Her
sole concern was to ensure her personal power.
Historical accounts portray her as a vicious and vindictive woman who
used poison, torture and the garrotte to eliminate anyone who displeased
her. She had been a princess from
Visigoth Spain married off to Sigebert of Burgundy to
form an alliance. When Sigibert mysteriously died from poison in 576 A.D., she
became Queen Regent. Even after her son,
Childerbert, came of age and was made king, she
remained a sinister power behind the throne, overseeing his every move.
When Columbanus explained to Childerbert
that he had come to Burgundy to perform missionary work, King Childerbert was greatly impressed with the monk's
spirituality, which sharply contrasted with the greed and the conniving of the
local priests. Because Childerbert could make no decision without Brunhilde's approval, he urged his mother to let these
Irish wanderers stay in his land. He
sensed in these foreigners a source of knowledge and education that could make
his kingdom wealthy and strong. Brunhilde's yielded to her son's wishes because she saw no
threat to her power from the Irish monks.
She permitted her son to grant Columbanus a
remote plot of land where he could found a monastery.
In the Vosges hills of Alsace near modern Annegray,
Columbanus settled with the twelve followers who had
accompanied him from Ireland. He chose
to build his monastery on the ruins of a Roman temple to Diana because the site
was considered holy by the local pagans.
Celtic Christians often incorporated pagan customs into their religious
practice when these customs did not contradict the fundamental beliefs of
Christianity. The nobles and warriors in
the royal court gave this outpost little prospect for survival. Surrounded by a thick and tangled forest, the
monks laboured day and night to clear the land in order to grow enough food to
feed themselves. The soil was barren,
and the first summer's crop was meagre.
But in later harvests, the monks' patient husbandry produced fields of
wheat and alfalfa. Each year they
cleared more land until they were cultivating large tracts and raising fat
herds of cows, sheep and chickens.
Agriculture
was one of the skills that Columbanus and his twelve
Irish followers had practised in the monasteries of Ireland. Farming was essential to the survival of a
monastery during a time when there was little trade between communities. In addition to learning Latin, Greek,
mathematics and astronomy, the monks had to master the fundamentals of
planting, harvesting and animal care to ensure that they could produce enough
food for their tables.
The
Frankish tribe surrounding Columbanus' monastery and
fields at Annegray were known as the Suevians. Despite
being an outsider, Columbanus was accepted by them
because he was quick to share his knowledge of agriculture, medicine, crafts
and other useful, beneficial skills.
Impoverished and barbaric even by the primitive standards of the Franks,
the Suevians were impressed by the monks' peaceful
way of life that reaped such evident material rewards as full harvests. Before long, many young men of the local
tribe were asking Columbanus and his band of monks to
be converted to Christianity, believing that there was a connection between the
religion and the ability of the monks to provide regular, adequate meals. The Irish monks welcomed them into the
Christian faith despite the suspect motives of the Suevians. Soon there were so many novice monks to feed
and house that Columbanus had to found two new
monasteries, one at Luxeuil and another at
Fontaine. All three of Columbanus' French monasteries flourished throughout the
Middle Ages, with Fontaine lasting until the French Revolution when it was
destroyed by Republican extremists.
Despite his
notable achievements in the areas of agriculture and education and the high
regard he was held in by the Franks, Columbanus
remained at heart a Christian monk devoted to a spiritual ideal. As he grew older, his missionary zeal became
even stronger and he became a fire-and-brimstone preacher who foretold dire
consequences for anyone who strayed from the Christian path of
righteousness. His message offended many
local bishops and priests of the Arian and Roman sects who had become very
materialistic. The contemporary
historian Gregory of Tours wrote that the Christian clergy was corrupt, openly
engaging in murder, theft and sexual excess.
Often they ignored the spiritual needs of the impoverished peasantry,
concentrating on the wealthy aristocrats who could give them land and gold.
Even as he
enjoyed the fruits of his success by establishing prosperous monasteries, Columbanus was planting the seeds of his undoing. He frequently denounced the Frankish bishops
and priests in sermons that predicted divine retribution for their
misdeeds. Angry clerics countered by
denouncing him, and outraged bishops demanded that he appear before them for
judgement. Ignoring their challenges and
plots to discredit him, Columbanus was shunned by the
clergy and their supporters among the aristocracy.
While this
religious controversy was going on, King Childerbert
died, and his son, Theodoric, succeeded him as King
of Burgundy. The new king openly enjoyed
relationships with many women. At the
same time, Theodobert, another son of Childerbert, became King of Austrasia. Brunhilde continued
to dominate her grandsons as she had her son, maintaining control over both
realms.
When Columbanus learned of the loose sexual conduct of Theodoric, he began to denounce the king along with his
regular denunciations of the materialistic local clergymen. Brunhilde could not
tolerate the spectacle of a foreign monk preaching against the king. As far as she was concerned, the words of Columbanus were more seditious than spiritual. So she demanded that Theodoric
test the loyalty of Columbanus by asking the monk to
publicly bless the illegitimate sons of the royal household. When Columbanus
refused to comply, as Brunhilde was sure he would,
she banished him and all of the Irish Celtic monks from the kingdom.
Brunhilde was as shrewd as she was wicked. In one clever stroke, she rid her realm of an
annoying troublemaker. But she allowed
the monasteries that Columbanus had founded to
continue operating, inhabited only by Frankish monks who had learned the Celtic
Irish farming techniques. From Annegray, Luxeuil and Fontaine,
the knowledge of the improved methods of agriculture continued to spread
throughout Burgundy.
Columbanus was determined to remain in Europe after his
banishment. He wandered down the Rhine,
settled in Switzerland for a time, and founded a new monastery at a place
called Bobbio in the part of northern Italy known as
Lombardy. Wherever he settled, he was
welcomed for his knowledge and learning, and he was careful not to openly
criticize the behaviour of any king or queen.
The tale of
Columbanus marks the beginning of the relationship
between Irish émigrés and European countries which would continue for the
following fourteen centuries. Columbanus's reasons for leaving Ireland, his contributions
to the local European culture, and the tightrope he had to walk between
fulfilling his aspirations and adapting to the local authorities and society
represent typical aspects of the story of Irish emigration which endured
throughout the medieval and early modern periods.
Like Columbanus, many other Irish monks were prompted to pursue
their calling in the lands of continental Europe. These early missionaries left Ireland for
spiritual reasons - to fulfil their vision of the White Martyr and to spread
the Christian faith. For the most part,
later generations of Irish émigrés did not follow a spiritual calling, but
rather were driven from their homeland by oppressive political, social, and
economic conditions. In the centuries
following the Middle Ages, changing historical conditions gave different waves
and groups of Irish émigrés different motives and reasons for leaving
Ireland. But like the vision of the
White Martyr, the varying specific motives and reasons were manifestations of
the ancient Celtic desire to wander to different lands to seek better fortunes
and to test oneself. The pattern of
migration of the ancient Celts became a pattern of emigration for Irish society
in later centuries. Because of its link
to the migration of the Celtic tribes who were their forebears, emigration was
a natural, acceptable, and common practice in Irish society. With its roots in Celtic culture, medieval
and modern Irish society saw emigration as an opportunity.
When the
people of Ireland ventured into different parts of Europe, they usually found
that their skills and viewpoints were highly valued. Sometimes they saw possibilities in commerce
or diplomacy that no-one had noticed before.
Other times, they offered competence and loyalty, earning the respect of
both nobles and peasants. Wherever they
went, they instinctively recognized the needs of their adopted lands and took
positive steps to fill these needs. Their
well-balanced political sense and their holistic approach to spirituality helped
the Irish to fit into the cultures in the lands where they settled, thus
allowing the Irish émigrés of both the medieval and early modern periods to
become a distinctive and enduring influence in European society.
The basis
for the success of the Irish émigrés throughout Europe was their
education. Learning in all fields -
philosophy, mathematics, and language primary among these - was a central
concern of Irish culture. Compared with
the educational standards of the early modern era, the émigrés had practically
the same level of learning as the scholars of the universities in Europe. In most cases, however, the Irish differed
from scholars and academics by having an eclectic educational background,
rather than one focused on a specialized subject. The mix of intellectual disciplines and
practical skills which were a part of the education of the early Druids and
which were the model for the education of the Christian monks of Ireland
remained the model for Irish education into later eras. This mix of intellectual training and
practical skills enabled the Irish to be effective in a range of areas beyond
the disciplines and formal education in universities. The eclectic basis of their schooling came
into use in fields ranging from military service to agriculture to
commerce. With their educational
background, in military affairs, Irish émigrés could take advantage of the
local terrain to deploy an effective defensive position; the background would
enable them to implement productive agricultural practices across large parts
of a country. In the field of commerce,
the émigrés brought with them an international perspective, as well as contacts
with Irish émigrés in other countries, all of which broadened the economic
activity of the countries where they settled.
As artists, Irish émigrés were able to represent by pictures or words
feelings and experiences that were universal.
By filling
needs of the various European societies, the Irish were accepted into
them. It was usually the royalty or the
aristocrats of the societies who recognized the value of the émigrés and were
best able to put to use what they had to offer.
In many cases, émigrés were given or reached positions of military and
political leadership. In addition to
their evident military or political abilities, the Irish émigrés were untouched
by palace intrigue and were not tied to any faction which might be manoeuvring
for power or impeding a monarch's wishes.
Thus, besides being effective in whatever tasks they were assigned, the
Irish gave their loyalty only to the monarch.
As long as the monarchs and warlords of Europe saw the Irish as
non-threatening, they were tolerated.
But if the Irish émigrés in their service became involved with a
bothersome faction or tried to change any of the society's basic cultural
practices or beliefs, they would quickly lose their position and be ordered out
of the society.
Although
they had a high regard for education and gave educated persons such as monks
and teachers a high status, the Irish were basically a practical people. Because of their Celtic heritage with its
tradition of migrating and wandering, the émigrés were able to assess the
dangers and the opportunities presented by a new situation - and thus they were
usually able to make the best of their circumstances. Also, the Celtic child-rearing practices of gossiprage and fosterage made the émigrés accustomed to
dealing with persons outside of the narrow context of the family; and loyalty
to the clan enabled the Irish to give their devotion to the structures and
inter-workings of larger entities such as a monarchy or state. That the Irish were not enmeshed in nostalgia
was another advantage they had as émigrés.
They did not pine for the life they left behind; nor did they endeavour
to recreate a facsimile of it in their new lands. The Celtic lore involving shape-shifting and
the view of life as a journey, represented in the intricate spirals of the
Celtic artists which had been carried into Irish culture, led the émigrés to
see their changed circumstances not as a loss or a change of the fundamentals
of their lives, but simply as another appearance of them. As the spirals of the Celtic artists suggest,
the past, present and future are interwoven.
This view led the Irish to see each new situation as a step in the
journey of life which presented new challenges and new opportunities.
The Irish
contributions to European civilization were widespread - and they are
immeasurable. Because the early Irish
emigrated with a spiritual purpose and later émigrés gave their loyalty and
devoted their skills to the monarchs and governments of the different European
countries, the Irish do not stand out the way individuals of other cultures do
in the history of the countries where they settled. The breadth of contributions from many Irish
were absorbed into the cultures of the various parts of Europe so that they
have become a part of them rather than noted particularly as "Irish
contributions". During the Middle
Ages, Irish monks and scholars preserved a vast amount of learning which might
otherwise have been lost forever. They
were also the founders and administrators of many universities. Attracted or invited to the court of Charlemagne
in France, Irish scholars, intellectuals and clerics had a significant role in
the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, which is often looked to as the
origin or Western civilization. The
hundreds of monasteries established by Irish monks all over the Continent not
only provided spiritual guidance, but served as centres of learning and
culture.
Irish ideas
about the independence of individuals and communal government were reflected in
the artistic and political ideas which emerged in the European Renaissance that
brought the Middle Ages to an end. These
Irish ideas developed into the concepts of democratic government and society in
the latter part of this era. During the
early modern period of 1500 to 1800, large numbers of Irish soldiers and
notable diplomats helped to shape the nations which were arising in Europe. Because of their numbers, the regularity of
their emigration, and their practical skills and ability to fill the needs of
the countries they travelled to, the Irish émigrés had an effect on Western
European culture greater than any other group from outside of the indigenous
populations. The Irish influence is
often not recognized because it has been so thoroughly absorbed into European
culture. Because Irish culture was in
many ways the successor of Celtic culture, the Irish émigrés can be viewed as
bringing aspects of this Celtic culture back to the people of Europe whose
roots in Celtic culture had been lost under the dominance of the Roman Empire
or was displaced by invading German tribes.
To
understand what it was particularly that Columbanus and
the subsequent Irish émigrés brought to Europe, and why they were usually
readily accepted as valued members of the different societies in a way that no
other emigrant groups were, we must go back three thousand years before Columbanus to the plains and valleys and mountains of
prehistoric Europe.
During the
Bronze Age - about 2000 B.C. - the Celts began to become a distinctive group
within the Indo-European people who had migrated from the steppes of Russia to
nearly all of Europe and parts of Asia Minor and India. By 1000 B.C., centres of this Celtic culture
had grown around forts in Hallstatt, Austria, and in
La Tène, Switzerland.
The concentration of Celtic tribes in these areas and the permanence of
the settlements allowed Celtic culture to develop in ways which had not been
possible in preceding eras. It was in
the Hallstatt and La Tène
regions where Celtic culture emerged by developing cultural traits which
diverged from those of the older Indo-European culture and which distinguished
the Celtic people from all of the other branches of the Indo-Europeans which
had taken root in areas of Europe, Asia Minor, and India.
In these
regions, the clans, the agricultural methods, the style of warfare, the
independent spirit, the equality of women, and the pagan spirituality which
have come to be recognized as the hallmarks of Celtic culture were first
developed. It was this culture which
would be preserved and further refined on the distant island of Ireland. At the time, Ireland was known as Inisfall, or North Island - and to the Celts who had spread
across continental Europe and whose culture was flourishing in the central
European centres, it was little more than a remote, quasi-mythological land.